Kinship in Anthropology – UPSC Notes for Anthropology Optional

Introduction

Kinship is one of the most important topics in the Anthropology Optional UPSC (Paper I). It deals with relationships formed by blood (consanguinal) and marriage (affinal) ties, forming the foundation of social structure in different cultures.

At Vijetha IAS Academy, Delhi, our Anthropology Notes for UPSC simplify kinship theory, terminologies, descent, and group organisation into exam-ready content.

Kinship: Definition

Kinship refers to the relation between blood relatives (consanguinal) and marriage relatives (affinal).

Types of Consanguinal Relatives

• Cognates: Relatives from both father’s and mother’s side.
   
• Agnates: Relatives from the father’s side only.
   
• Uterines: Relatives from the mother’s side only.
   

Degree of Kinship

1. Primary Kins

Primary kins are the direct relations of an individual. These include the closest consanguinal and affinal ties such as father, mother, brother, and sister. In total, there are 8 primary kins, which form the foundation of family structure.

2. Secondary Kins

Secondary kins are the primary kins of an individual’s primary kins. For example, your father’s brother (uncle), mother’s sister (aunt), brother’s son (nephew), or sister’s daughter (niece). Anthropologists count 33 secondary kins, which show how relationships expand beyond the immediate family.

3. Tertiary Kins

Tertiary kins are the primary kins of an individual’s secondary kins. These are more distant relations such as cousins, great uncles, and great nephews. There are around 151 tertiary kins, highlighting the extended network of social relations that link individuals across multiple generations.

Kinship Terminology

Kinship terms are classified based on:

1. Mode of Use
    
2. Language Structure
    
3. Range of Applications
    

1. Mode of Use

• Terms of Address: Used face-to-face, may or may not indicate actual relations.

• Terms of Reference: Accurately indicate the relationship between two individuals.

2. Language Structure

• Elementary Terms: Basic kinship terms (father, mother).

• Derived Terms: Modified elementary terms (grandfather, father-in-law).

• Descriptive Terms: Two primary terms combined (father’s sister = paternal aunt).

3. Range of Applications

• Denotatory Terms: Indicate a specific person (Father, Mother, Son).

• Classificatory Terms: Indicate a group (Uncle, Cousin, Aunt).

Criteria for Classifying Kinship Terms

1. Generation – e.g., Father vs Grandfather.

2. Sex – Male/Female distinction.

3. Relative Age – Elder brother, younger sister.

4. Polarity – Terms used in conversation (husband vs wife).

5. Affinality – Distinguishing affinal and consanguinal relations.

6. Collaterality – Differentiating brother’s vs sister’s relatives.

7. Bifurcation – Father vs mother distinction.

8. Speaker’s Sex – Rare, except in specific cultures.

9. Decedence (Death) – Terms used after death vary across societies.
    

Descent in Anthropology

Fortes: “The relation of a person with his/her ancestor is descent, and with parents is filiation.”

• Descent = tracing lineage through consanguinal relations.
   
• Societies may be Patrilineal, Matrilineal, or follow Complex Descent Rules.
   

Types of Descent

1. Unilineal Descent (from one side only):
    
   • Patrilineal – traced from the father’s side.
      
   • Matrilineal – traced from the mother’s side.
      
2. Complex Descent (from both parents, but not equally):
    
   • Double Descent – e.g., Ashanti (Ghana), Yako (Nigeria).
      
   • Bi-unilineal – gender-based descent.
      
     • Parallel: Sons from father, daughters from mother.
        
     • Cross: Sons from mother, daughters from father.
        
3. Mixed Descent: Flexible descent rules (Ambilineal, Bilateral).
    

Descent Groups

Lineage
 

• Descent can be demonstrated for 3–4 generations.

• Found in tribes like Gonds, Santhals.

Clan
 

• Based on belief of common descent, often associated with totems.

• Examples: Nairs, Totemic Tribes.

Phratry
 

• A union of several clans, usually exogamous in nature.

• Examples: Toda, Bonda.

Moiety
 

• Society is divided into two halves.

• Marriage and services are exchange-based between the halves.

• Example: Toda tribes with Buffalo vs Spider Totems.

• Ensures balance in services, marriages, and rituals.

  • .

Conclusion

Kinship forms the core of social anthropology, explaining how families, clans, and societies function. For UPSC Anthropology Optional, kinship covers both theoretical and applied aspects – from kinship terms to descent and group structures.

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